Acute Citrulline Malate Supplementation Does Not Improve 1-km Time-Trial Performance in Trained Female Kayak Paddlers Original Research
Main Article Content
Keywords
Exercise performance, nitric oxide, ergogenic aids
Abstract
Introduction: Citrulline malate (CM) has been reported to enhance performance during resistance training and high-intensity exercise; however, its ergogenic effects during kayak exercise have not been investigated. This study examined the effects of acute CM ingestion on 1-km kayak ergometer time-trial (TT) performance and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) in trained female youth kayakers.
Methods: Fifteen trained female youth kayakers (age: 16.3 ± 1.1 y; body mass: 55.5 ± 6.7 kg; height: 164.3 ± 3.7 cm) completed three conditions in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover design: CM (8 g), placebo (PL; 6 g citric acid), and a control condition (CON; no supplement). Participants ingested CM and PL 60 min before a 1-km kayak ergometer TT. RPE (6–20) was recorded immediately upon TT completion.
Results: The TT completion time differed across conditions (p = 0.001; ηp² = 0.44). Compared with CON (270.8 ± 5.31 s), TT was faster following CM (262.6 ± 4.69 s; p = 0.016) and PL (261.8 ± 4.55 s; p < 0.001), with no difference between CM and PL (p = 1.000). The RPE also differed across conditions (p = 0.025; ηp² = 0.23); however, Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons did not reach statistical significance (CON vs CM: p = 0.080; CON vs PL: p = 0.107; CM vs PL: p = 1.000).
Conclusion: Acute CM supplementation did not improve 1-km kayak ergometer TT performance compared with placebo in trained female youth kayakers. The faster times observed in both CM and placebo compared with control may reflect non-specific effects (e.g., placebo/taste or pre-trial routines) and warrant further investigation.
References
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27. Zouhal H, Le Douairon Lahaye S, Abderrahaman AB, Minter G, Herbez R, Castagna C. Energy system contribution to Olympic distances in flat water kayaking (500 and 1,000 m) in highly trained subjects. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(3):825–831.
28. McNaughton LR, Dalton B, Tarr J. The effects of creatine supplementation on high-intensity exercise performance in elite performers. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1998;78(3):236–240.
29. Bech SR, Nielsen TS, Hald M, Jakobsen JP, Nordsborg NB. No effect of β-alanine on muscle function and kayak performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2018;50(3):562–569.
30. Peeling P, Cox GR, Bullock N, Burke LM. Beetroot juice improves on-water 500 m time-trial performance and laboratory-based paddling economy in national and international-level kayak athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2015;25(3):278–284.
31. Muggeridge DJ, Howe CC, Spendiff O, Pedlar C, James PE, Easton C. The effects of a single dose of concentrated beetroot juice on performance in trained flatwater kayakers. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2013;23(5):498–506.
32. Moinard C, Nicolis I, Neveux N, Darquy S, Bénazeth S, Cynober L. Dose-ranging effects of citrulline administration on plasma amino acids and hormonal patterns in healthy subjects: the Citrudose pharmacokinetic study. Br J Nutr. 2008;99(4):855–862.
33. Rezaei S, Akbari K, Gahreman DE, et al. Caffeine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation alone or together improve karate performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019;16(1):44.
34. Hooper SL, Mackinnon LT, Howard A, Gordon RD, Bachmann AW. Markers for monitoring overtraining and recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;27(1):106–112.
35. Bailey SJ, Blackwell JR, Lord T, Vanhatalo A, Winyard PG, Jones AM. L-citrulline supplementation improves O2 uptake kinetics and high-intensity exercise performance in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2015;119(4):385–395.
36. Campos Y, Casado A, Vieira JG, et al. Training-intensity distribution on middle- and long-distance runners: a systematic review. Int J Sports Med. 2022;43(4):305–316.
37. Viribay A, Fernández-Landa J, Castañeda-Babarro A, Collado PS, Fernández-Lázaro D, Mielgo-Ayuso J. Effects of citrulline supplementation on different aerobic exercise performance outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2022;14(17):3479.
38. Gonzalez AM, Trexler ET. Effects of citrulline supplementation on exercise performance in humans: a review of the current literature. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;34(5):1480–1495.
39. Jones AM. Dietary nitrate supplementation and exercise performance. Sports Med. 2014;44(Suppl 1):S35–S45.
40. Bescos R, Ferrer-Roca V, Galilea PA, et al. Sodium nitrate supplementation does not enhance performance of endurance athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(12):2400–2409.
41. Stevens CJ, Ross ML, Carr AJ, et al. Postexercise hot-water immersion does not further enhance heat adaptation or performance in endurance athletes training in a hot environment. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2020;16(4):480–488.
42. Cermak NM, Gibala MJ, van Loon LJC. Nitrate supplementation's improvement of 10-km time-trial performance in trained cyclists. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2012;22(1):64–71.
43. Vanhatalo A, Bailey SJ, Blackwell JR, et al. Acute and chronic effects of dietary nitrate supplementation on blood pressure and the physiological responses to moderate-intensity and incremental exercise. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2010;299(4):R1121–R1131.
44. Malina RM, Rogol AD, Cumming SP, Coelho e Silva MJ, Figueiredo AJ. Biological maturation of youth athletes: assessment and implications. Br J Sports Med. 2015;49(13):852–859.
45. Lloyd RS, Oliver JL, Faigenbaum AD, Myer GD, De Ste Croix MB. Chronological age vs. biological maturation: implications for exercise programming in youth. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(5):1454–1464.
46. Standing RJ, Maulder PS, Best R, Berger NJA. The influence of maturation on functional performance and injury markers in male youth. Cogent Med. 2019;6(1):1632017.
47. Towlson C, Salter J, Ade JD, et al. Maturity-associated considerations for training load, injury risk, and physical performance in youth soccer: one size does not fit all. J Sport Health Sci. 2021;10(4):403–412.
48. Teixeira JE, Alves AR, Ferraz R, et al. Effects of chronological age, relative age, and maturation status on accumulated training load and perceived exertion in young sub-elite football players. Front Physiol. 2022;13:832202.
49. Mandorino M, Figueiredo AJ, Condello G, Tessitore A. The influence of maturity on recovery and perceived exertion, and its relationship with illnesses and non-contact injuries in young soccer players. Biol Sport. 2022;39(4):839–848.
50. Marlatt KL, Steinberger J, Dengel DR, et al. Impact of pubertal development on endothelial function and arterial elasticity. J Pediatr. 2013;163(5):1432–1436.
51. Wójcik M, Starzyk JB, Drożdż M, Drożdż D. Effects of puberty on blood pressure trajectories—underlying processes. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2023;25(7):117–125.
52. Best R, Temm D, Hucker H, McDonald K. Repeated menthol mouth swilling affects neither strength nor power performance. Sports. 2020;8(6):90.
53. Best R, McDonald K, Hurst P, Pickering C. Can taste be ergogenic? Eur J Nutr. 2021;60(1):45–54.
54. Fan SZ, Lin CS, Wei YW, et al. Dietary citrate supplementation enhances longevity, metabolic health, and memory performance through promoting ketogenesis. Aging Cell. 2021;20(12):e13510.
55. Iacobazzi V, Infantino V. Citrate – new functions for an old metabolite. Biol Chem. 2014;395(4):387–399.
56. Marticorena FM, Carvalho A, de Oliveira LF, et al. Nonplacebo controls to determine the magnitude of ergogenic interventions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2021;53(8):1766–1777.
57. Smith JC, Hill DW. Stability of parameter estimates derived from the power/time relationship. Can J Appl Physiol. 1993;18(1):43–47.
2. Aguiar AF, Casonatto J. Effects of citrulline malate supplementation on muscle strength in resistance-trained adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Diet Suppl. 2022;19(6):772–790.
3. Trexler E, Persky A, Ryan E, Schwartz T, Stoner L, Smith-Ryan A. Acute effects of citrulline supplementation on high-intensity strength and power performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2019;49(5):707–718.
4. Hickner RC, Tanner CJ, Evans CA, et al. L-citrulline reduces time to exhaustion and insulin response to a graded exercise test. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38(4):660–666.
5. Gentilin A, Zanini P, Cevese A, Schena F, Tarperi C. Ergogenic effects of citrulline supplementation on exercise performance and physiological indexes of exercise performance during cycling tests: a review. Sci Sports. 2022;37(8):665–674.
6. Joles JA, Palencia JYP, Saraiva A, et al. Effectiveness of citrulline and N-carbamoyl glutamate as arginine precursors on reproductive performance in mammals: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2018;13(12):e0206204.
7. Schwedhelm E, Maas R, Freese R, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of oral L-citrulline and L-arginine: impact on nitric oxide metabolism. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2008;65(1):51–59.
8. Stamler JS, Meissner G. Physiology of nitric oxide in skeletal muscle. Physiol Rev. 2001;81(1):209–237.
9. Rhim HC, Kim SJ, Park J, Jang K-M. Effect of citrulline on post-exercise rating of perceived exertion, muscle soreness, and blood lactate levels: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Sport Health Sci. 2020;9(6):553–561.
10. Breuillard C, Cynober L, Moinard C. Citrulline and nitrogen homeostasis: an overview. Amino Acids. 2015;47(4):685–691.
11. Bendahan D, Mattei JP, Ghattas B, Confort-Gouny S, Le Guern ME, Cozzone PJ. Citrulline/malate promotes aerobic energy production in human exercising muscle. Br J Sports Med. 2002;36(4):282–289.
12. Glenn JM, Gray M, Jensen A, Stone MS, Vincenzo JL. Acute citrulline-malate supplementation improves maximal strength and anaerobic power in female, masters athletes tennis players. Eur J Sport Sci. 2016;16(8):1095–1103.
13. Cunniffe B, Papageorgiou M, O'Brien B, Davies NA, Grimble GK, Cardinale M. Acute citrulline-malate supplementation and high-intensity cycling performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(9):2638–2647.
14. Buckinx F, Gouspillou G, Carvalho LP, et al. Effect of high-intensity interval training combined with L-citrulline supplementation on functional capacities and muscle function in dynapenic-obese older adults. J Clin Med. 2018;7(12):561.
15. Chappell AJ, Allwood DM, Johns R, et al. Citrulline malate supplementation does not improve German Volume Training performance or reduce muscle soreness in moderately trained males and females. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018;15(1):42.
16. Gough LA, Sparks SA, McNaughton LR, et al. A critical review of citrulline malate supplementation and exercise performance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2021;121(12):3283–3295.
17. Domínguez R, Cuenca E, Maté-Muñoz JL, et al. Effects of beetroot juice supplementation on cardiorespiratory endurance in athletes: a systematic review. Nutrients. 2017;9(1):43.
18. Poole DC, Jones AM. Measurement of the maximum oxygen uptake V̇o2max: V̇o2peak is no longer acceptable. J Appl Physiol. 2017;122(4):997–1002.
19. Chamari K, Padulo J. ‘Aerobic’ and ‘Anaerobic’ terms used in exercise physiology: a critical terminology reflection. Sports Med Open. 2015;1(1):9.
20. Gills JL, Glenn JM, Gray M, Romer B, Lu H. Acute citrulline-malate supplementation is ineffective during aerobic cycling and subsequent anaerobic performance in recreationally active males. Eur J Sport Sci. 2020;21(1):77–83.
21. Bailey SJ, Blackwell JR, Williams E, et al. Two weeks of watermelon juice supplementation improves nitric oxide bioavailability but not endurance exercise performance in humans. Nitric Oxide. 2016;59:10–20.
22. Stanelle ST, McLaughlin KL, Crouse SF. One week of L-citrulline supplementation improves performance in trained cyclists. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;34(3):647–652.
23. Suzuki T, Morita M, Kobayashi Y, Kamimura A. Oral L-citrulline supplementation enhances cycling time trial performance in healthy trained men: double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, 2-way crossover study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2016;13:6.
24. Michael JS, Rooney KB, Smith R. The metabolic demands of kayaking: a review. J Sports Sci Med. 2008;7(1):1–7.
25. Cutrufello PT, Gadomski SJ, Zavorsky GS. The effect of L-citrulline and watermelon juice supplementation on anaerobic and aerobic exercise performance. J Sports Sci. 2014;33(14):1459–1466.
26. Martínez-Sánchez A, Ramos-Campo DJ, Fernández-Lobato B, Rubio-Arias JA, Alacid F, Aguayo E. Biochemical, physiological, and performance response of a functional watermelon juice enriched in L-citrulline during a half-marathon race. Food Nutr Res. 2017;61(1):1330098.
27. Zouhal H, Le Douairon Lahaye S, Abderrahaman AB, Minter G, Herbez R, Castagna C. Energy system contribution to Olympic distances in flat water kayaking (500 and 1,000 m) in highly trained subjects. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(3):825–831.
28. McNaughton LR, Dalton B, Tarr J. The effects of creatine supplementation on high-intensity exercise performance in elite performers. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1998;78(3):236–240.
29. Bech SR, Nielsen TS, Hald M, Jakobsen JP, Nordsborg NB. No effect of β-alanine on muscle function and kayak performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2018;50(3):562–569.
30. Peeling P, Cox GR, Bullock N, Burke LM. Beetroot juice improves on-water 500 m time-trial performance and laboratory-based paddling economy in national and international-level kayak athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2015;25(3):278–284.
31. Muggeridge DJ, Howe CC, Spendiff O, Pedlar C, James PE, Easton C. The effects of a single dose of concentrated beetroot juice on performance in trained flatwater kayakers. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2013;23(5):498–506.
32. Moinard C, Nicolis I, Neveux N, Darquy S, Bénazeth S, Cynober L. Dose-ranging effects of citrulline administration on plasma amino acids and hormonal patterns in healthy subjects: the Citrudose pharmacokinetic study. Br J Nutr. 2008;99(4):855–862.
33. Rezaei S, Akbari K, Gahreman DE, et al. Caffeine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation alone or together improve karate performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019;16(1):44.
34. Hooper SL, Mackinnon LT, Howard A, Gordon RD, Bachmann AW. Markers for monitoring overtraining and recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;27(1):106–112.
35. Bailey SJ, Blackwell JR, Lord T, Vanhatalo A, Winyard PG, Jones AM. L-citrulline supplementation improves O2 uptake kinetics and high-intensity exercise performance in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2015;119(4):385–395.
36. Campos Y, Casado A, Vieira JG, et al. Training-intensity distribution on middle- and long-distance runners: a systematic review. Int J Sports Med. 2022;43(4):305–316.
37. Viribay A, Fernández-Landa J, Castañeda-Babarro A, Collado PS, Fernández-Lázaro D, Mielgo-Ayuso J. Effects of citrulline supplementation on different aerobic exercise performance outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2022;14(17):3479.
38. Gonzalez AM, Trexler ET. Effects of citrulline supplementation on exercise performance in humans: a review of the current literature. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;34(5):1480–1495.
39. Jones AM. Dietary nitrate supplementation and exercise performance. Sports Med. 2014;44(Suppl 1):S35–S45.
40. Bescos R, Ferrer-Roca V, Galilea PA, et al. Sodium nitrate supplementation does not enhance performance of endurance athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(12):2400–2409.
41. Stevens CJ, Ross ML, Carr AJ, et al. Postexercise hot-water immersion does not further enhance heat adaptation or performance in endurance athletes training in a hot environment. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2020;16(4):480–488.
42. Cermak NM, Gibala MJ, van Loon LJC. Nitrate supplementation's improvement of 10-km time-trial performance in trained cyclists. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2012;22(1):64–71.
43. Vanhatalo A, Bailey SJ, Blackwell JR, et al. Acute and chronic effects of dietary nitrate supplementation on blood pressure and the physiological responses to moderate-intensity and incremental exercise. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2010;299(4):R1121–R1131.
44. Malina RM, Rogol AD, Cumming SP, Coelho e Silva MJ, Figueiredo AJ. Biological maturation of youth athletes: assessment and implications. Br J Sports Med. 2015;49(13):852–859.
45. Lloyd RS, Oliver JL, Faigenbaum AD, Myer GD, De Ste Croix MB. Chronological age vs. biological maturation: implications for exercise programming in youth. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(5):1454–1464.
46. Standing RJ, Maulder PS, Best R, Berger NJA. The influence of maturation on functional performance and injury markers in male youth. Cogent Med. 2019;6(1):1632017.
47. Towlson C, Salter J, Ade JD, et al. Maturity-associated considerations for training load, injury risk, and physical performance in youth soccer: one size does not fit all. J Sport Health Sci. 2021;10(4):403–412.
48. Teixeira JE, Alves AR, Ferraz R, et al. Effects of chronological age, relative age, and maturation status on accumulated training load and perceived exertion in young sub-elite football players. Front Physiol. 2022;13:832202.
49. Mandorino M, Figueiredo AJ, Condello G, Tessitore A. The influence of maturity on recovery and perceived exertion, and its relationship with illnesses and non-contact injuries in young soccer players. Biol Sport. 2022;39(4):839–848.
50. Marlatt KL, Steinberger J, Dengel DR, et al. Impact of pubertal development on endothelial function and arterial elasticity. J Pediatr. 2013;163(5):1432–1436.
51. Wójcik M, Starzyk JB, Drożdż M, Drożdż D. Effects of puberty on blood pressure trajectories—underlying processes. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2023;25(7):117–125.
52. Best R, Temm D, Hucker H, McDonald K. Repeated menthol mouth swilling affects neither strength nor power performance. Sports. 2020;8(6):90.
53. Best R, McDonald K, Hurst P, Pickering C. Can taste be ergogenic? Eur J Nutr. 2021;60(1):45–54.
54. Fan SZ, Lin CS, Wei YW, et al. Dietary citrate supplementation enhances longevity, metabolic health, and memory performance through promoting ketogenesis. Aging Cell. 2021;20(12):e13510.
55. Iacobazzi V, Infantino V. Citrate – new functions for an old metabolite. Biol Chem. 2014;395(4):387–399.
56. Marticorena FM, Carvalho A, de Oliveira LF, et al. Nonplacebo controls to determine the magnitude of ergogenic interventions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2021;53(8):1766–1777.
57. Smith JC, Hill DW. Stability of parameter estimates derived from the power/time relationship. Can J Appl Physiol. 1993;18(1):43–47.
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Acute Citrulline Malate Supplementation Does Not Improve 1-km Time-Trial Performance in Trained Female Kayak Paddlers: Original Research. (2026). Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.53520/jen2026.103217
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Copyright, 2026 by the authors. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Acute Citrulline Malate Supplementation Does Not Improve 1-km Time-Trial Performance in Trained Female Kayak Paddlers: Original Research. (2026). Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.53520/jen2026.103217